| dc.description.abstract | Botswana’s incidence of Taenia saginata cysticercosis following passive post-mortem inspection has increased consistently, with attendant public health and socioeconomic implications. Most published bovine cysticercosis prevalence data emanate solely from Botswana Meat Commission’s (BMC) data. Although BMC slaughters about 44% of total annual slaughter, BMC figures do not include cattle slaughters that occur in lower throughput abattoirs and other regions of Botswana outside of BMC jurisdiction. Thus BMC prevalence record alone is not representative of Botswana’s bovine cysticercosis prevalence. The government of Botswana has practiced several traditional, prevention and control methods without achieving a decline in bovine cysticercosis prevalence. It is probable that either the important risk factors were misdiagnosed and/or the traditional control and prevention methods targeted at identified risk factors are inadequate. Although these risk factors are behavioural and systemic, there is no known work that associates risk factors with lifestyle of residents of Botswana in order to derive empirical data upon which to advocate behaviour change. Taenia saginata cysticercosis causes adverse effects on cattle farmers’ finance and socioeconomy. Whilst claims of these effects exist, there is little empirical evidence to justify these assertions in Botswana. Vaccines and vaccination have shown to be effective in bovine cysticercosis prevention and control. However, there is no known commercial vaccine for bovine cysticercosis. The objective of this research was to determine the prevalence and risk factors of bovine cysticercosis, its effects on the socio-economy of beef farmers in Botswana and to designate the potential immuno-dominant epitopes. In order words, the overall objective of this research was to reduce prevalence and risk factors of bovine cysticercosis in Botswana’s cattle to alleviate poverty and increase farmers income Non-participatory structured questionnaire, interviews, physical enumeration and measurements were used to study the demographic profile of cattle, cattle ownership & cattle farming systems in Botswana as a means of delimitating important study area and understanding the non-climatic factors affecting Botswana’s cattle population. A combination of traditional method of passive post mortem abattoir inspection and a novel use of structured non-participatory questionnaire administered directly to farmers were used to determine bovine cysticercosis hotspots and prevalence. Results obtained from the study of both methods were compared. This combination provides more representative results than using only the passive abattoir inspection method. Likert scale formatted questionnaire was used to collect survey data on risk factors of bovine cysticercosis. Descriptive statistics of median and inter quartile range were used to determine the most probable response for the risk factor in each particular population and level of polarity about the particular risk factor respectively. Chi-square was used to determine the quantitative relevance (role) of each risk factor, while binomial logistic regression was used to test the significance of individual risk factors in the prediction of the prevalence of bovine cysticercosis. Effects of bovine cysticercosis on the socioeconomy of farmers were determined by subjecting 14 objectively verifiable socioeconomic indicators to binomial regression, while examining for gender and age differences. In addition, financial losses were estimated using means Through a one-dimensional electrophoresis using Sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) the constituent proteins of Taenia saginata cysticercosis were teased out. Polyclonal primary antibody of bovine origin and Rabbit anti-Bovine IgG (H+L) secondary antibody Horse Radish Peroxidase (HRP) were used to challenge antigens derived from cysts fluid and whole cysts of Taenia saginata cysticercosis isolated from beef slaughtered at the Multi Specie Abattoir Gaborone Botswana. Analysis of results showed an abattoir prevalence of 17.17% and survey prevalence of 42.35%; both of which are higher than the published prevalence of 13.5%. At 0.025 (p <0.05) both are significantly different from each other. In addition to delimitating novel hotspots in Botswana, this study showed significant difference (p <0.05) in prevalence among abattoirs as well as significant differences among and within districts and regions. The higher survey prevalence and the significant difference between abattoir and survey prevalence results demonstrates that BMC data is not true representative of bovine cysticercosis prevalence in Botswana. Of the eighteen (18) tested risk factors, fourteen (14) contributed significantly (p <0.05) to the prevalence of bovine cysticercosis with ‘absence and or distanced pit latrine in the farm’ being the single most important risk factor. There is strong agreement (high consensus) among respondents that the factors of, access to contaminated feed, water feed and pasture; ‘failure to deworm herd boys’; ‘proximity to uncontrolled human defecation’; ‘grazing of animal’; ‘are major contributors to the prevalence of bovine cysticercosis. Seasonal index showed close association between increased bovine cysticercosis incidences and outset of rainfall in the summer month of December; harvesting of Mopane worms in April and cutting of grass for roof thatching in October. Identified novel risk factors are political, behavioural, systemic and sociocultural. Results of financial and socioeconomic study indicate that devaluation or condemnation of carcass resulted in various levels of financial loss. The ability to save money was most significantly affected (p <0.05) and experience of emotional disturbance was significantly affected (p <0.05). The ability to provide food for family was equally significantly affected at (p <0.10). Also affected were farmers’ ability to provide food, healthcare, education, rental for family. Furthermore, bovine cysticercosis caused farmers not to employ new workers; to diversify or abandon farming business. Reduced income caused ‘farmers’ inability to meet social, religious and family obligations; leading some to borrowing money for upkeep of family and/or farming business. There were gender and age differences in bovine cysticercosis effects, which were not statistically significant (p <0.05). Farmers who could not save money were 10.02 times more likely to attribute this to experience of bovine cysticercosis in their farms compared to farmers who did not. Equally, farmers who experienced emotional disturbance and inability to provide food for their family were 29.30 times and 7.29 times respectively more likely to attribute their experience to occurrence of bovine cysticercosis in their farms than farmers who did not experience it. Severity of bovine cysticercosis effects on farmers’ well being were dependent on the magnitude of the infestation, the scale of production of farmers and presence or absence of some survival strategies. Farmers’ response to financial & socioeconomic effects ranged from outright closure of farms, to reduction in farm capacity, to diversification of businesses. Some farmers experienced psycho-social effects. Currently government of Botswana do not pay compensations to farmers whose cattle are condemned however, this study models and recommends that the most efficient interventions would be provision of re-stocking seed calves; payment for cold treatment of infested carcass and payment of compensation to farmers’ whose cattle are condemned. All these would play vital roles in cushioning the adverse effects of bovine cysticercosis on the livelihood pattern of the farmers. Electrophoretic profiling of the Taenia saginata cysts identified nineteen (19) proteins with molecular weights of 4, 6, 14, 17, 22, 25, 28, 32, 38, 44, 50, 67, 75, 100, 115, 135, 150, 190, 245kDa. Immunoblotting under reducing conditions yielded eight (8) immunogenic proteins with molecular weights at 14, 22, 25, 50, 98, 135, 190 and 245kDa. These immunogenic proteins where further confirmed to be specific for Taenia saginata cysts. This was done by carrying out a western blot using serum from Rabbit experimentally exposed to Taenia saginata cysts as a source of primary antibody and Goat anti-Rabbit IgG (H+L) Secondary Antibody HRP to produce antibody-antigen complex. Chilling of samples did not cause significant difference (p <0.05) in quantity of proteins contained in samples however, immunogenic proteins were lost after 7 days of chilling. This study recommends that prevention and control measures should target a paradigm shift in the politics, method of cattle farming and socio-cultural lifestyle (behaviour) of Batswana. While this may be far-fetched, production of vaccines using the identified immunogenic proteins would be the best approach on the long run. Development of antemortem diagnostic kits using monoclonal antibodies and silver dyes as markers is equally recommended. Results of this study have provided information that is relevant for development of effective interventions and policy advocacy for improved beef production, increasing farmers’ income, ensuring food security, and adequate management of Taeniasis saginata in man and bovine cysticercosis in cattle in Botswana. These guarantees attainment of sustainable development goals numbers 1,3, 5, 8, 10 and 12 in Botswana. | en_US |
